Catherine II of Russia (1729–1796) seized power after orchestrating a coup against her own husband, Peter III. Though German by birth, she rebranded herself as a champion of Russian culture and expansion. She corresponded with Enlightenment philosophers, reformed education and administration, and greatly expanded Russian territory. Her persona

Mary Stuart (1542–1587) was crowned Queen of Scotland when she was just six days old. Her life was a series of political missteps and unfortunate marriages. Yet her story is compelling because she continually fought against impossible odds. Her claim to the English throne made her a threat to Elizabeth I. After being imprisoned for 19 years, s

Cleopatra VII (69–30 BCE) ruled Egypt during its final days as an independent kingdom. She is often remembered for her romances with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, but her survival story is far more nuanced. As a woman in a patriarchal Roman world, Cleopatra held power through strategy, education, and diplomacy. Fluent in several languages and

Catherine de’ Medici (1519–1589), the Italian-born Queen of France, was one of the most politically shrewd and controversial women in European history. Married into the French Valois dynasty, she initially held little power. However, after the deaths of her husband and several sons, she became queen regent and the de facto ruler of France. C